Table 1.1: Typical Tylototriton shanjing coloration and pattern. The photos above show three typical T. shanjing, with vivid orange heads, tails, dorsal ridges, legs, and dorsolateral paratoid glands. Also note that with the exception of one, all of the following photos of T. verrucosus are of aquatic individuals; a characteristic not observed in T. shanjing outside of breeding adults. T. shanjing are generally differentiated from T. verrucosus by their more terrestrial behavior, brighter orange coloration, usually in higher levels, and narrower heads. Photos courtesy of Paolo Mazzei, Amphibians & Reptiles of Europe, and Jessica J. Miller.

 

Table 1.2: Variation among members of the Tylototriton verrucosus complex The photos above show individuals of the T. verrucosus complex displaying a wide range of coloration and shape, including high levels of orange, moderate levels of orange, and high levels of black. Also note the differences in tail and head shape. Whether the differences in appearance between members of the T. verrucosus complex warrant race or subspecies classification is unknown at this time, but at least subspecies classification seems likely. Photos courtesy of Henk Wallays, Jessica J. Miller, and Dr. Grumman.

Table 1.2 is included in the T. shanjing database entry to show that at least one type of T. verrucosus are similar in appearance to T. shanjing, which may shed some light on the possible reasons Anderson and his predecessors might have overlooked the obvious differences between the two species. As mentioned previously, it is assumed that the differences between the two species were overlooked because only one type, i.e. bright orange (shanjing) or dark (verrucosus), were collected for study at any one time, making a morphological comparison impossible  (Nussbaum, Brodie, Yang, 1995). Also, if lighter colored specimens of the T. verrucosus complex were compared to typical T. shanjing specimens, it's easy to understand how and why they may have been included in the same species. 

It is generally accepted that T. shanjing will remain a separate species from T. verrucosus, however, the new forms of T. verrucosus appearing in the pet trade indicate there is more work to be done with this particular taxon. Furthermore, some populations of T. shanjing differ markedly by tail size, body length, and number of teeth, eluding to the feasibility of at least one T. shanjing subspecies (Nussbaum, Brodie, Yang, 1995).

Conservation Status

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T. verrucosus, a species that formerly included T. shanjing, has been classified as state major protective wildlife grade II in China since 1988 (Zhao, 1998). Although T. shanjing was considered the same species as T. verrucosus until 1995, it does not carry the same protection as T. verrucosus, and is basically unprotected from over-collection and habitat destruction. The main threats to T. shanjing are human encroachment, habitat destruction, and recently, over collection for the pet trade. 

T. shanjing are highly sought after in the pet trade by experienced keepers, as well as the less knowledgeable. During their breeding season, T. shanjing are mass collected and shipped out to other countries by the hundreds. By the time these newts make it to the stores, they are often sick and close to death, and usually die shortly after being purchased. Unfortunately, for the hundreds of newts collected for trade, very few end up reproducing in captivity. The same can be said for other Tylototriton species, including T. kweichowensis. Hopefully, captive breeding successes will only increase, reducing or eliminating the desire to purchase from pet stores, and in turn helping to preserve wild populations.  

IUCN	None
CITES	None
Other	See Above

 

Natural Habitat & Distribution

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Tylototriton shanjing are found in the northern, central, western, and southwestern Yunnan Province, China, often near the Nu River (Nujiang), Lancang (Lancangjiang, Mekong) River, and Yuan River (Yuanjiang). The Nu and Lancang Rivers run from Tibet, southerly through Yunnan Province. T. shanjing are found in moist, vegetated areas, often close to ponds, irrigation canals, and rice fields. T. shanjing do not usually enter bodies of water outside of the breeding season, and remain hidden in dark places during the day. 

Documented populations are known to occur between 1000-2500 meters above sea level  (Nussbaum, Brodie, Yang, 1995). This is not surprising, as Yunnan is almost entirely mountainous. The map below-left shows the general distribution of T. shanjing in the Yunnan Province of China. The map below-right shows documented populations in Yunnan Province (adapted from Nussbaum, Brodie, and Yang, 1995).

Yunnan is a highly diverse region, and home to more than half of China's plant and animal species. The climate is varied, with glacial and temperate zones in the northwest, mild to subtropical climates in central and eastern areas, and hot, tropical climates in the south. T. shanjing are found in temperate northwestern Yunnan, including the Lijiang Prefecture, the subtropical western/central Yunnan, and even into down into the tropical southwestern region. Of course, it's entirely possible that T. shanjing inhabits only cooler microhabitats in the tropical zones, however, even such environments would be significantly warmer than the colder areas of northern Yunnan. Yunnan is approximately 94% highland, and 6% flatlands, and so it is assumed that T. shanjing are found in mostly, if not entirely, in mountainous regions. Yunnan also experiences two distinct seasons; dry, and monsoon. In the Yunnan, the monsoon season begins lightly in May, with the heaviest rains between June and September, and tapers off in October. As Table 1.3 below shows, the monsoon season coincides with the warmer, summer season, and that annual rainfall and temperatures vary greatly in different regions of Yunnan.

Table 1.3 - Climates of selected Yunnan Prefectures, China, over the past 20 years. Blue text  indicates monsoon months.   Lijiang Prefecture month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 avg temp. °F 42.8 46.4 50.0 55.4 62.6 64.4 64.4 62.6 60.8 55.4 48.2 42.8 avg high °F 57.2 59.0 64.4 68.0 73.4 73.6 73.6 73.6 71.6 68.0 62.6 57.2 avg low °F 30.2 35.6 41.0 46.4 51.8 57.2 59.0 57.2 53.6 48.2 37.4 32.0 rainfall (inches) .0394 .236 .433 .827 2.32 7.09 9.37 8.66 5.63 2.76 .512 .157       Dali Prefecture month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 avg. temp. °F 46.4 50.0 55.4 60.8 66.2 68.0 60.8 64.4 64.4 59.0 53.6 48.2 avg high °F 60.8 62.6 68.0 73.4 77.0 77.0 77.0 75.2 75.2 69.8 64.4 60.8 avg low °F 37.4 39.2 44.6 50.0 55.4 42.8 62.6 60.8 59.0 51.8 44.6 37.4 rainfall (inches) .551 .866 1.30 .827 2.64 8.23 7.24 9.41 6.46 3.94 1.3 .591       Dehong Prefecture month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 avg temp. °F 53.6 57.2 64.4 69.8 73.4 75.5 75.2 75.2 73.4 69.8 62.6 55.4 avg high °F 71.6 75.2 82.4 86.0 86.0 82.4 82.4 82.4 82.4 80.6 77.0 73.4 avg low °F 42.8 44.6 50.0 59.0 64.4 69.8 69.8 69.8 68.0 62.6 53.6 44.6 rainfall (inches) .472 .709 .709 2.24 5.20 12.3 15.9 14.0 6.46 4.96 1.85 .709           Kunming Prefecture   month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 avg temp. °F 46.4 48.2 53.6 60.8 66.2 66.4 68.0 66.2 62.6 59.0 51.8 46.4 avg high °F 59.0 62.6 69.8 75.2 77.0 75.2 75.2 75.2 73.4 68.0 64.4 59.0 avg low °F 33.8 37.4 42.8 48.2 57.2 60.8 62.2 60.8 51.8 51.8 44.6 37.4 rainfall (inches) .512 .433 .630 1.06 3.74 7.01 8.70 8.35 3.58 3.58 1.61 .551       Xishuangbanna Prefecture   month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 avg temp. °F 60.8 64.4 69.8 75.2 78.8 78.8 77.0 77.0 75.2 73.4 64.4 60.8 avg high °F 77.0 82.4 89.6 91.4 91.4 87.8 86.0 86.0 87.8 84.2 84.2 75.2 avg low °F 51.8 51.8 55.4 62.6 69.8 71.6 71.6 71.6 69.8 66.2 60.8 53.6 rainfall (inches) .709 .433 .787 2.01 5.24 7.32 8.50 9.69 5.39 3.90 2.01 1.02

T. shanjing in Captivity

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T. shanjing is a passive, non-aggressive species. One to two adults can be housed in no smaller than a 15 gallon aquarium, but the larger the tank, the better. This species is not tolerant of improper habitats, such as excessive moisture, insufficient moisture, overcrowding, mixed species tanks, undesirable food items, or lack of hiding places. Multiple hiding spots should be provided to prevent the newts from piling on top of one another in the same spot. If healthy, housed in the proper habitat, and not exposed to stressful activities, T. shanjing are long lived captives. 

T. shanjing are typically shy and timid initially, hiding in dark places for the entirety of the day and emerging at night to feed. Well adjusted individuals may emerge during the day to feed, and accept food from forceps. Because of their rather delicate and unforgiving nature, T. shanjing are not recommended for novices. 

A terrestrial or large semi-aquatic setup is ideal for housing T. shanjing. Soil substrate should consist of a rich mixture, with a healthy colony of nitrifying bacteria. Sterile substrates can cause problems with amphibians, especially new imports of the more delicate species because they allow potentially harmful pathogens brought in on the amphibians to flourish and take over the tank. See article 0021 - Substrate Mixes for the Vivarium for information about proper substrate mixtures. 

A basic setup would consist of 4-6 inches of moist soil, a few live plants, and several dark hiding places. Live terrestrial plants, such as Epiprenum and Philodendron, should be included in the land area. Hiding places, such as small caves and shelters made of rock, wood, terra cotta, or other non-toxic materials are a necessity with T. shanjing. The soil must always be kept moist, but not soaking wet or muddy. The winter season in Yunnan is cold and dry, which may seem odd to westerners, but is normal in areas that experience a wet and humid monsoon season in the summer. For this reason, terrestrial T. shanjing actually prefer somewhat drier terrestrial conditions compared to some other species. It is recommended to keep one half of the terrestrial portion of the tank wetter than the other, so the newts can choose the level of humidity they prefer. Drier hiding spots, such as stacked flat rocks or other material, should also be included. 

For breeding purposes, a sloped-floor water area of about 6-8 inches maximum can be included. The water area can be mildly filtered with carbon and sponge, and must be cycled prior to use with the newts (See article 0009 - Introduction to the Nitrogen Cycle for more information about cycling aquariums). Live, aquatic plants should be included in the breeding area for egg deposition, as well. Outside of the breeding season, the water area should be drained or reduced to only an inch or two; as mentioned previously, the non-breeding winter season in Yunnan is colder and drier than the wet summer breeding season. This will aid in stimulating seasonal changes, for during the breeding season, the water area can be flooded to simulate rising water levels that would be experienced during the monsoon season in Yunnan, when T. shanjing enters breeding mode. A water bowl is not necessary with T. shanjing, as this species does not usually enter bodies of water outside the breeding season. In fact, shallow, stagnant water areas, such as soaking bowls, can provide a potential breeding ground for some harmful bacteria. Some may prefer to transfer their newts into a larger aquarium during the breeding season, in a similar fashion as many Triturus species. 

Temperatures for T. shanjing are a somewhat controversial topic. Although some recommend keeping T. shanjing in the upper-70's during the warmest season of the year, an acceptable range is low to mid 70's during the warm months, and low to mid 60's during the winter months. Temperatures in Yunnan are more extreme than these, but such a range is not necessary in captivity, especially since T. shanjing has been bred by maintaining the fore mentioned temperature scale. As table 1.3 shows, the monsoon season is generally between May and October, which also corresponds to warmer temperatures. Table 1.3 shows that the climate in Lijiang, northern Yunnan, is considerably colder than that of Xishuangbanna, in southern Yunnan, which indicates that populations of T. shanjing are found in variable climates. It can be deduced that individuals from tropical southern Yunnan are exposed to higher temperatures year-round, even if populations exist only in cooler microhabitats, while those those from colder northern populations may not be exposed to such high temperatures. Further assumptions lead to the conclusion that those from tropical southern Yunnan prefer higher temperatures for breeding purposes, whereas those further north may actually enter dormancy in the wild. Unfortunately, it is usually impossible to know exactly where a wild caught individual originated from, and so the fore mentioned temperatures should be treated as "safety zone" temperatures that can be applied to any individual. 

As with all amphibians, tap water should be treated with a water conditioner or primer prior to the introduction of inhabitants. Never use plain tap water, de-ionized, distilled, or reverse osmosis water alone with amphibians. 

See article 0006 - Water Quality and Amphibians for more information about water quality. See article 0020 - Captive Habitats: Ideas, Instructions, and Examples and the Captive & Wild Habitats section of the Photo Gallery. See article 0021 - Substrate Mixes for the Vivarium for information about proper substrate mixtures.

Sexing & Breeding T. shanjing

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Sexual dimorphism is limited in T. shanjing. In general, females can be distinguished from males by their larger, more robust size. During the breeding season, males will develop swollen cloaca, and laterally compressed tails.  

In the wild, the breeding season occurs from May to August, which corresponds to the monsoon season in their distribution in Yunnan. Courtship may consist of the male and female turning in circles, underwater, with their snouts nearly touching. Females will lay their eggs singly, or in strings attached to submersed plants, rocks, or other materials. Some have also reported eggs being deposited on moist land.

It is presumed that most captive individuals, at least in the US and Europe, are likely from the warmer southern regions of Yunnan that are less mountainous and closer to surrounding countries, while newts from the higher elevation populations of northern Yunnan are probably not collected for trade often. At least a few breeders have reported success after a winter at temperatures in the low to mid 60's, followed by a more humid and warmer period with temperatures in the low to mid 70's. To stimulate breeding in captivity, it may be beneficial to keep the water level lower or empty during the winter season, and flood it during the warmer season. This may simulate the monsoon/breeding season, and the drier, colder winter season of Yunnan to a degree, hopefully enough to convince T. shanjing to enter breeding mode. Most newt species will breed in captivity when kept in considerably less severe seasonal changes than would be experienced in the wild, provided noticeable winter and summer seasons in the proper humidity levels are supplied.

Larvae and new morphs should be kept in the low to mid 70's, preferably not below 69°F. These higher temperatures correspond to the warmer temperatures experienced during summer in the wild. Sustained lower temperatures may prove fatal to larvae and new morphs. 

At least a few successful breeders of T. shanjing noted that the breeding adults were long term, established captives housed in a moderately spacious tank. The establishment of a small colony, or at least one healthy male-female pair is probably a crucial factor for breeding this species in captivity, especially considering that most imported newts are unhealthy and do not live long. Again, populations of T. shanjing are found in variable climates, and it can be assumed that T. shanjing's affinity to breed depends heavily on the environmental conditions of their natural habitat, as is the case with most species. In general, individuals from tropical southern Yunnan are probably exposed to higher temperatures year-round, while those from colder northern populations may not tolerate temperatures as high. The lack knowledge of climate preference for captive individuals may be a key reason T. shanjing is so difficult to breed in captivity, in addition to the difficulties of attaining healthy individuals.  

Fortunately, the breeding habits of T. shanjing are at least a little more known today, and captive breeding successes are slowly increasing. There have been a few successful breeding projects in zoos, and by dedicated enthusiasts in recent times. Hopefully, in the near future T. shanjing will be bred in captivity often, and will become abundant in the caudate community. It seems that the more common a species, the less desirable it becomes, which can reduce its appeal to buyers, and thus to collectors as well. In theory, as a species becomes less sought after, it is collected less often from the wild, and thus wild populations may be positively impacted by such captive breeding successes.

 

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Journal References  

Nussbaum, R. A., E. D. Brodie, Jr., and Y. Datong. 1995. A Taxonomic Review of Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson (Amphibia: Caudata: Salamandridae). Herpetologica 51(3): 257-268. 

Chatterjee, K., and A. Majhl. 1974. Karotype of the Himalayan newt, Tylototriton verrucosus. Norw. Journal of Zoology. 22: 65-66.

Printed Book References 

Datong, Yang. The Amphibia-fauna of Yunnan.
   China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, 1991. 

Zhao, E. China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals: Amphibia and Reptilia.
   Beijing, China: Science Press; Endangered Species Scientific Commission, P.R.C., 1998.

Zhao, E., et al. Studies on Chinese Salamanders.
   Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, 1988. 

Internet References 

(1998). Yunnan Climates; A brief table of climates in some areas of Yunnan. Yunnan Travel. http://www.sinohost.com/yunnan_travel/travel_info/yunnan_climate.html (Accessed: 2003). 

Mahoney, Meridith, and Vance Vredenburg. (1999). Tylototriton shanjing, Emperor Newt. Amphibiaweb. http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?rel-genus=like&upper-genus...etc. (Accessed: 2000). 

Staniszewski, Marc S. (1998) Mandarin Salamander FAQ. http://www.amphibian.co.uk/mandarin.html (Accessed: 2000). Yunnan Province. asinah.net.  http://www.asinah.net/chinaprovinces_yunan.html (Accessed: 2000). 

Additional Resources 
AmphibiaWeb (Tylototriton shanjing entry)
Marc Staniszewski's Mandarin Salamander FAQ
Rieo.net (Tylototriton shanjing photos)