Cynops cyanurus (chenggongensis?). Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be	Cynops cyanurus (chenggongensis?). Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be	Cynops cyanurus. Adult. Photo © Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be
Cynops cyanurus (yunnanensis?). Normal colored male, with mild bluish sheen. Photo © Guillaume Seguin	Cynops cyanurus (yunnanensis?). Female with unusual orange coloration. Photo © Guillaume Seguin	Cynops cyanurus (yunnanensis?). Three month old juvenile with unusual orange-black mottling. Photo © Guillaume Seguin

For more photos, go to the Cynops cyanurus gallery

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Cynops ensicauda (Hallowell, 1860) Japanese Sword Tailed Newt & Okinawa Newt

Taxonomic Synonyms: Triton ensicauda (Hallowell, 1860), Molge pyrrogaster var. ensicauda (Boulenger, 1887), Molge pyrrhogaster var. ensicaudus (Okada, 1891), Molge pyrrhogaster ensicauda (Brown, 1902), Diemictylus ensicauda (Stejneger, 1907), Triturus ensicaudus (Dunn, 1918), Triton pyrrhogaster ensicauda (Wolterstorff, 1925), Cynops ensicauda (Wolterstorff  Herre, 1935), Triturus ensicauda (Sato, 1943) Triturus ensicaudus popei (Inger, 1947), Triturus pyrrhogaster ensicaudus (Kawamura, 1950), Cynops pyrrhogaster popei (Brame, 1967), Cynops ensicauda ensicauda (Thorn, 1968)
Vernacular Names: Japanese Sword Tailed Newt, Sword Tailed Newt, Yellow-Bellied Newt, Gold Dust Newt (spp. popei), Okinawa Newt (spp. popei). 

Cynops ensicauda is the largest species of the genus, reaching up to 5.5-6 inches as adults, with males slightly smaller than females. This species is usually chocolate brown or black dorsally, with bright orange or reddish bellies, mottled with black. The belly pattern and coloration is variable, and may consist of large portions of orange or reddish with little black coloration, or mostly black with little orange or reddish coloration. The bellies of some may consist of large, blurry, black blotches, or clear cut black spots contrasting the orange-red coloration. Cynops ensicauda popei, the Gold-Dust Newt or Okinawa Newt, possesses varying degrees of gold specks and blotches along the body and tail, a characteristics absent in Cynops ensicauda ensicauda. Some individuals of the Okinawa subspecies possess only light gold flecks, whereas other, extraordinary individuals may be more than 95% golden in coloration, with only small portions of brownish black visible. Gold coloration is present on many C. e. ensicauda individuals, in the form of tiny, merged flecks that do not contrast as vividly as those of C. e. popei. As the name suggests, the Sword-Tail newts have a rather straight, long, pointed tail. Both C. e. ensicauda and C. e. popei may possess an orange or reddish dorsolateral stripe along both sides of the body, which may or may not be discontinuous in distribution. These lines are usually thicker in C. e. ensicauda, and are often times absent in C. e. popei. C. e. ensicauda may possess additional orange or red coloration about the dorsum in specs, dots, lines, or blotches, as well as along the sides of the tail. 

Males of both subspecies can be distinguished from females by their shorter tails, and less robust physique; characteristics common in other Cynops species. The tails of females are slightly longer than the body, whereas the tails of males are shorter, or roughly the same length as the body. When a male and female are in close proximity, the difference in tail length is clear. During breeding times, males also possess more laterally compressed tails. Breeding males of C. e. ensicauda develop a bluish-purple, or whitish sheen along the lateral sides of the tail, a characteristic not observed in C. e. popei.

Subspecies of Cynops ensicauda Cynops ensicauda was once considered a subspecies of Cynops pyrrhogaster, the only other Cynops species found in Japan. Hayashi and Matsui (1988) showed that C. ensicauda was genetically distant enough from C. pyrrhogaster that species level classification was necessary. Further more, C. ensicauda was subsequently divided into two subspecies based on geographic distribution and morphological differentiation. Hayashi and Matsui (1988) later confirmed this classification by showing adequate genetic differentiation between the groups in question.

Cynops ensicauda ensicauda (Hallowell, 1830) Japanese Sword Tail Newt This subspecies can be distinguished from Cynops ensicauda popei by the absence of large gold blotches or stripes of gold coloration about the body and tail. C. e. ensicauda males develop pale bluish-silver coloration along the tail during the breeding season, which is not observed in C. e. popei. This subspecies is found within the Amami Island chain, Ryukyu Islands, Japan.

Cynops ensicauda popei (Inger, 1947) Gold-Dust Newt, Okinawa Newt This subspecies possesses golden flecks and/or solid gold coloration along the body and tail, and usually less orange coloration on the dorsum than Cynops ensicauda ensicauda. The golden coloration varies among individuals, with some being largely golden, and others showing negligible amounts of gold coloration. This subspecies is found within the Okinawa Island chain, Ryukyu Islands, Japan.

C. ensicauda are found among the Ryukyu (Nansei) Archipelago, Japan. The Ryukyu's, stretching from the southern tip of mainland Japan to Taiwan, are divided into four main island groups; the Amami, Okinawa, Miyako, and Yaeyama Islands. C. e. ensicauda are known from Amami Oshima (Amami Islands), and C. e. popei are known from Okinawajima (Okinawa Islands), and Tokashikijima (Kerama Island group, Okinawa Islands). The Ryukyu Islands are considered subtropical, and climate is warm and humid.

A strait separates mainland Japan and the Ryukyu Islands, and has long prevented genetic exchange between newts found in the Islands and those on mainland Japan (now designated Cynops pyrrhogaster). This straight was thought to have appeared some 8 million years ago, during the Miocene (Hayashi, 1988). Similarly, a strait also separates the Amami and Okinawa Islands, and thus also separates the two C. ensicauda subspecies. This straight is thought to have appeared 1-1.5 million years ago, during the middle Pleistocene (Hayashi, 1988). 

Breeding behavior and larval development are very similar for both subspecies. C. e. popei has been bred numerous times in captivity, whereas C. e. ensicauda seem to be rarely bred in captivity. During the breeding season, male C. e. ensicauda develop a pale bluish-silver sheen along the tails, which is not observed in C. e. popei. The only physical characteristic observed in C. e. popei males during the breeding season is enlarged cloaca with visible villi, and sometimes more laterally compressed tail fins. The photo at right shows clearly the swollen cloaca of a breeding male C. e. popei.

Courtship is similar to other Cynops species, consisting of tail-fanning by the males, accompanied by increased aggressive and alert behavior. Breeding males will actively pursue and block the paths of females, while attempting to fan pheromones toward their snouts with the tail. Uninterested females will typically dart off in the other direction, while interested females will allow courting males to continue their display. Courting males will fan pheromones towards the females snout while attempting to lead her off a ways. An interested female will follow a courting male, touching her snout to his cloaca periodically. Males deposit spermatophores onto the substrate, and attempt to lead females to pass over them so the sticky sperm cap can adhere to the female's cloacal lips.

After courting and successful collection of sperm caps, females will deposit eggs sporadically over a period of several weeks, typically using the hind feet to fold the eggs into small plant leaves, as the photo at right shows.

C. ensicauda are probably the easiest species of this genus to breed in captivity due to their willingness to breed in mildly varied environments. Like the other Cynops species, C. ensicauda naturally enter breeding mode when temperatures begin to rise in the spring, following a cooler winter period. In captivity, a cooling period in the range of 58°F-65°F, followed by gradual warming to temperatures in the range of 68°F-73°F is usually substantial enough to stimulate breeding mode. Established colonies or individuals may even enter breeding mode with a lesser degree of seasonal changes. C. ensicauda begin courtship and egg deposition when temperatures have reached about 65°F-72°F, and will usually cease when temperatures enter the upper 70's. Although they would experience higher temperatures during mid and late summer in the wild, consistent temperatures in the upper 70's and lower 80's are not necessary with C. ensicauda, and can be omitted to extend the breeding period. However, health problems can arise from over-breeding newts, and so it is recommended to simulate their natural cycles in the wild, which includes a cease in breeding when temperatures rise into the mid and late 70's. Established individuals will typically enter  breeding mode with only mild temperature changes experienced in a temperature home, and no additional stimuli. Some may be prompted by a drop or rise in temperature of only a few degrees, and/or flooding their tank. Keepers in warmer regions may have more success with C. ensicauda than other newt species due to their warm-water requirements. 

Juveniles and larvae of C. ensicauda should be kept at temps around 70°F-75°F for the first few months after metamorphosis to ensure their survival. These temperatures correspond to mid and late summer temperatures, when larvae would develop, and young would begin metamorphosis in the wild. With new morphs, fatalities will occur if temperatures fall below 65°F for long periods. As they mature, C. ensicauda will tolerate lower temperatures in the winter.

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Cynops orientalis (David, 1873) Chinese Fire Belly Newt

Taxonomic Synonyms: Triton orientalis (David, 1873), Triton pyrrhogaster orientalis (Wolterstorff, 1906), Diemictylus orientalis (Stejneger, 1907), Triturus orientalis (Stejneger, 1925), Cynops orientalis (Wolterstorff & Herre, 1935)
Vernacular Names: Chinese Fire Belly Newt, Dwarf Fire Belly Newt, Oriental Fire Belly Newt, CFBN, CFB.

Cynops orientalis are small, semi-aquatic newts commonly found in the pet trade. C. orientalis will reach approximately 4 inches from snout to tail tip as adults, with exceptional individuals reaching 4.5 inches. The dorsum is typically black to dark brown, with bright orange to burnt orange bellies mottled with black coloring. It is common for C. orientalis to turn gray, or considerably lighter colored for periods of time, or indefinitely, for unknown reasons.  In addition to the "gray orientalis", some individuals may have orangish-red spots on the dorsum and/or feet, and may have an orange stripe or other reddish-orange markings on the upper side of the tail. The skin is rather smooth in more aquatic individuals, and slightly granular for those that spend more time on land. C. orientalis lack dorsal crests, and have mildly noticeable dorsal ridges. In general, males have noticeably shorter tails than females, usually around 90%-95% the length of the body from snout to vent, whereas females' tails are typically the same length, or slightly longer than the body from snout to vent. Males are also smaller and less robust than females. During the breeding season, males will develop more laterally compressed tails, swollen cloaca, as well as more active and aggressive habits.

Larvae are uniform black, including the dorsum, tail, snout, and gills. The ventral surface may be a dark gray color. New morphs are black with cream-yellow colored bellies mottled with black. As morphs mature, the belly color turns to the bright orange or reddish color typical of adults.

Cynops orientalis, adult female. Photo © Jessica J. Miller, jess@livingunderworld.org	Cynops orientalis, adult female. Photo © Jessica J. Miller, jess@livingunderworld.org	Cynops orientalis, terrestrial juvenile. Photo © Jessica J. Miller, jess@livingunderworld.org
Cynops orientalis, adult female. Photo © Jessica J. Miller, jess@livingunderworld.org	Cynops orientalis, adult male. Photo © Jessica J. Miller, jess@livingunderworld.org	Cynops orientalis, terrestrial juvenile. Photo © Jessica J. Miller, jess@livingunderworld.org

For more photos, go to the Cynops orientalis gallery

Occasionally, C. orientalis is confused with C. pyrrhogaster, the Japanese Fire Belly Newt. C. orientalis can be distinguished from C. pyrrhogaster by their smaller size, typically only 4 inches as adult, whereas C. pyrrhogaster can reach up to 6 inches. Also, C. pyrrhogaster are usually a lighter colored brown, are more robust, and have a tapered tail that ends in a point, compared to the more rounded or blunt tail end of C. orientalis. Breeding C. pyrrhogaster males are easy to differentiate form C. orientalis, as most individuals will develop noticeable bluish coloration about the tail, and a fine thread at the tip of the tail.

Cynops orientalis are found throughout the Eastern Hemisphere of China, in the provinces of Kiangsu, Tchekiang, Kiangsi, Nganhouei Houpe (Sparreboom, 1997), and are found along the lower Yangtze River. The American Museum of Natural History lists the provinces of Henan, southern Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangxi, Fujian, southern Hubei, and Hunan. Unfortunately, there is very little information published on the natural habitat of C. orientalis. It can be concluded from captive behavior that adults inhabit slow, or still mountainous lakes, ponds, brooks, and similar permanent water sources of a rather temperate climate. 

In captivity, this species seems to prefer slow moving, cool waters, and becomes disturbed when exposed to high output filters or other currents, or extreme temperatures. Captive individuals also seem to fully utilize deeper water tanks. Many adults occasionally leave the water for short periods of time, but seem to spend the majority of time in the water. 

Breeding behavior begins when temperature start to rise in late winter/early spring. Males become aggressive and active in breeding mode, and will pursue females relentlessly, fanning pheromones with the tail, and sometimes biting at them. Males often block the paths of females, and attempt to coerce them into corners. In captivity, well established colonies or individuals may only require a short cooling period with or without higher water levels, followed by slightly  warmer temperatures. Established colonies housed correctly will typically bred consistently every year, without any additional modifications from their keepers. 

Females attach their eggs singly to small plant leaves, usually folding the leaf over the egg. In captivity, C. orientalis often utilize Vesicularia, Lilaeopsis, and Elodea (Anacharis) plant species for egg deposition. The photo at above-right shows a freshly deposited C. orentalis egg in a strand of Elodea.

Larvae are typical pond type, with long gills and tall tail fins. Shortly after egg yolks have been absorbed, larvae are are only a few millimeters in length, lacking front and hind extremities, and are black or grayish in coloration. Larvae remain dark black or grayish colored throughout development, and do not possess any unusual color characteristics. The lateral line system is clearly visible running from the back of the gills down to the tail. Upon metamorphosis, larvae may be as long as 1.5 inches.

New morphs are solid black dorsally, with cream-yellow colored bellies mottled with the black dorsal coloration. The characteristic orange-red ventral coloration begins developing after several weeks. Upon metamorphosis, gill remnants are still visible in most, and the newts are typically inactive as they adjust. Initially, the skin is smooth and shiny, but becomes more tuberculate a week or so after metamorphosis, as the new morphs anatomically adjust to a terrestrial life. Juveniles of this species generally prefer to remain terrestrial, however, some keepers have successfully raised semi-aquatic juveniles to adulthood. C. orientalis are a temperate species, and juveniles should not be exposed to extremely high temperatures. A successful range is 68°F-73°F.  The photo at left shows a young newt, four days after metamorphosis. The photo at right shows an older juvenile housed in a semi-aquatic tank. This particular individual never enters the water, even though his/her siblings have adapted aquatic habits.

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Cynops pyrrhogaster (Boie, 1826) Japanese Fire Belly Newt

Taxonomic Synonyms: Molge pyrrhogaster (Boie, 1826), Salamandra subcristata (Temminck & Schlegel, 1838), Cynops subcristatus (Tschudi, 1838), Cynops pyrrhogaster (Gray, 1850), Triton subcristatus (Dumeril, Bribron, Dumeril, 1854) Triton pyrrhogaster (Strauch, 1870), Salamandra pyrrhogastra (Geerts, 1881), Molge pyrrhogastra (Boulenger, 1882), Diemyctylus pyrrhogaster (Cope, 1889), Triton subcristatus var. typica (Krefft, 1898), Triton subcristatus var immaculiventris (Krefft, 1898), Triton pyrrhogaster typica (Wolterstorff, 1906), Diemictylus pyrrhogaster (Stejneger, 1907), Triturus pyrrhogaster (Dunn, 1918), Triton pyrrhogaster (Wolterstorff & Herre, 1935), Triturus pyrrhogaster sasayamae (Mertens, 1969), Cynops shataukokensis (Freytag & Eberhardt, 1977)
Vernacular Names: Japanese Fire Belly Newt, JFBN, JFB. 

Adult Cynops pyrrhogaster have dark brown to black, semi-rough bodies, with bright yellow, reddish, or orange bellies mottled with the same dark dorsal coloring. C. pyrrhogaster display a wide range of coloration; some variations may consist of a completely red belly, mostly red dorsum, completely or mostly black belly, grayish/whitish mottled dorsum, or albinism. Dr. Grumman has compiled an informative site that compares the ventral color and pattern of the different subspecies, Morphological Characteristics of the Japanese Fire Belly Newt. Other variations are apparent in the belly color and pattern, which can be anything from yellow blotches, to tiny red dots, and just about anything in between. Variations in dorsal coloration also exist, ranging from chocolate brown to light brown, some with red or orange flecks and blotches. Gold flecks and blotches are also apparent in some populations. Sexual dimorphism is apparent in all subspecies. Breeding males develop laterally flattened tails that taper off into a thin thread, a bluish-purple sheen on the tail and body (dependent on race), swollen cloaca, and smoother skin. 

New morphs are black with cream-yellow colored bellies mottled with black, some with a yellow or orange dorsal stripe. As new morphs mature, the bright colored dorsal stripe usually fades, and the newt may acquire additional orange or reddish coloration about the tail, feet, head, and dorsum.

Occasionally, C. pyrrhogaster is confused with C. orientalis, the Chinese Fire Belly Newt. C. pyrrhogaster can be distinguished from C. orientalis by their larger size, up to 6 inches, whereas C. orientalis rarely surpass 4 inches. Also, C. pyrrhogaster are usually a lighter colored brown, are more robust, and have a tapered tail that often ends in a point, compared to the more rounded or blunt tail end of C. orientalis. Breeding C. pyrrhogaster males are easy to differentiate form C. orientalis, as most individuals will develop noticeable bluish coloration about the tail, and a fine thread at the tip of the tail.

Cynops pyrrhogaster. Breeding male. Photo © Paolo Mazzei, Amphibians and Reptiles of Europe	Cynops pyrrhogaster. Breeding male. Photo © Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be, Henk's Gallery	Cynops pyrrhogaster. Breeding male from the Kii Peninsula (Kinki Region). Photo © Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be, Henk's Gallery
Cynops pyrrhogaster. Female from the Kii Peninsula (Kinki Region). Photo © Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be, Henk's Gallery	Cynops pyrrhogaster sasayamae, 24 month old individual. Photo © Jessica Miller, jess@livingunderworld.org	Cynops pyrrhogaster sasayamae, 12 month old individual. Photo © Jessica Miller, jess@livingunderworld.org
Cynops pyrrhogaster. Photo © Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be, Henk's Gallery	Cynops pyrrhogaster. Photo © Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be, Henk's Gallery	Cynops pyrrhogaster. Photo © Henk Wallays, Henk.Wallays@pandora.be, Henk's Gallery

For more photos, go to the Cynops pyrrhogaster gallery

C. pyrrhogaster is informally divided into six races or subspecies, based on geographic distribution, and physical characteristics. Although all races are considered part of the same species, there is significant differentiation between them in terms of behavior and genetic properties, and the possibility of multiple species has been suggested several times. The Tohoku and Kanto races of Honshu, in particular, have been shown to share little gene flow, and are incapable of interbreeding. Experiments conducted by Sawada (1963) determined that females of the Kanto race are unable to collect spermatophores from Tohoku males, and Tohoku females are unresponsive to Kanto male courtship behavior, indicating the presence of sexual isolation among the two races. Electromorphic analysis conducted by Hayashi & Matsui (1990) showed that the Tohoku and Kanto races are genetically different from one another to a significant degree, and that little gene flow occurs between the two. Based on laboratory observations and allozymic data, it is presumed that the Kanto and Tohoku races do not breed in nature. In later experiments, Hayashi & Matsui (1988) showed that genetic interchange is minimal even among populations of the Tohoku race. Observations of the Tohoku race in nature support this finding, as there are notable differences in physical appearance between several populations. 

The Kanto race displays more varied genetic properties within two markedly different populations. One of these populations, found in Hachioji, is thought to be the result of hybridization among the Kanto race and an introduced race from southwestern Japan that were released into the wild after having been part of multiple laboratory experiments (Hayashi & Matsui, 1990). The northern population, from Iwaki, is isolated from the Hachioji population by mountains, which has resulted in limited gene flow between the two. It is possible that the Iwaki population does not interbreed with other Kanto populations at all (Hayashi & Matsui, 1990).

Hayashi & Matsui (1988) conducted similar electromorphic tests on the western races, Hiroshima and Sasayama, which showed at least more gene exchange than between the Tohoku and Kanto races, especially near the range border. The Hiroshima race forms at least two distinct groups, while the Sasayama/Tamba race appears to form a single group (Hayashi & Matsui, 1988).

Kawamura and Sawada (1959) have shown distinct sexual isolation between C. pyrrhogaster and Cynops ensicauda in a "multiple choice" experiment, where males and females of each species and race were presented with males and females of the other species and races. The rejection by females toward the advances of males was the main reason for sexual isolation in this experiment. Sasayama females refused all advances from all foreign males, and C. pyrrhogaster (Kagoshima) females resorted to biting the necks of advancing males, and thus deterring them. C. pyrrhogaster (Hiroshima) females showed no interest in courting C. ensicauda males, and female C. ensicauda equally rejected C. pyrrhogaster (Sasayama) males. Other isolation factors included the inability of C. ensicauda males to recognize consenting C. pyrrhogaster (Kagoshima) females, incompatibility of behavior during the latter portion of courtship, and incompatible walking rates between males and females during the lead-and-follow phase of courtship (Kawamura & Sawada, 1959). Despite the common rejection by females of foreign males, Kawamura and Sawada (1959) indicate that C. pyrrhogaster (Sasayama) males show a preference for C. ensicauda females, over females of their own species. C. pyrrhogaster (Sasayama)'s affinity for C. ensicauda females has been attributed to the fact that male newts typically prefer larger females, and C. ensicauda attain larger sizes than C. pyrrhogaster. Genetic differences that would prevent viable breeding between these two species were not found in Kawamura and Sawada's experiments, and although the breeding season and behavior is rather similar between C. ensicauda and some races of C. pyrrhogaster, the high percentage of rejection by females of foreign males, and seemingly minor discrepancies in courtship behavior prevent successful interbreeding between the two species. 

Later electromorphic studies conducted by Hayashi & Matsui (1988) showed that C. ensicauda and C. pyrrhogaster are indeed separate species, and that a higher level of genetic differentiation occurs between C. ensicauda and adjacent C. pyrrhogaster populations than between C. ensicauda and other races of C. pyrrhogaster. These later findings have secured C. ensicauda's position at the species level, and put to rest Kawamura and Sawada's (1959) proposed classification of C. ensicauda as a subspecies of C. pyrrhogaster.     

In essence, sexual isolation, whether genetic or behavioral, is present between some races of C. pyrrhogaster, and between C. pyrrhogaster and C. ensicauda. Furthermore, sexual isolation is not always more severe between C. pyrrhogaster and C. ensicauda, than between races of C. pyrrhogaster.

Subspecies & Races of Cynops pyrrhogaster Sawada (1963) divided Cynops pyrrhogaster into six races based on geographic distribution and physical appearance. Some time later, Mertens described the Sasayama race at the subspecies level, Cynops pyrrhogaster sasayamae, with the remaining races forming one group under the subspecies Cynops pyrrhogaster pyrrhogaster (Hayashi & Matsui, 1988). Today, the validity of subspecies, as opposed to races, is debatable at best, however, it is generally accepted that the six races are indeed distinct groups within the pyrrhogaster species. For completeness, the two proposed subspecies, C. p. pyrrhogaster and C. p. sasayamae, will be differentiated, with the remaining races classed under C. p. pyrrhogaster.

Cynops pyrrhogaster pyrrhogaster Atsumi Race The Atsumi race are found along the Atsumi Peninsula, Aichi Prefecture, Chubu Region, Japan. Defining physical characteristics consist of a smaller body size, a red dorsal stripe, and two rows of dorsolateral spots or broken lines, in red, orange, or tan. Breeding males of this subspecies lack the purplish-blue coloration on the tail, but develop noticeable threads at the end of the tail. Hiroshima Race This race is found on the Regions of Kyushu, Shikoku, and western Chugoku, Japan. The Hiroshima race is highly variable in belly coloration, which may consist of solid reddish-orange coloration, or reddish-orange mottled with black speckling, equal sized black dots, irregular black spots, or some combination of large blotching with small dots. This race is also larger in average size, with the exception of Kagoshima populations, and males do not develop a filamentous tail end during the breeding season. Those collected by Kawamura and Sawada (1959) from Kagoshima are described as the smallest in average size of those collected, and with deep red undersides. Sawada's plates (1963) show individuals from the cities of Kagoshima (Kagoshima Prefecture), Tokushima (Tokushima Prefecture), Takamatsu (Kagawa Prefecture), Mibara, Ooita (Kagoshima Prefecture), and Hiroshima (Hiroshima Prefecture). The belly pattern shows a general trend of small black spots over the bright colored belly, particularly near the outer sides of the abdomen, and either lacking dark coloration, or possessing tiny spots down the center of the belly. Others from Sawada's plates (1963) have clear, un-mottled bands down the center of the belly, fully mottled bellies, or no mottling at all. Some individuals may also possess red or orange dorsolateral spots, while others may have solid brown-black dorsa. Intermediate Race Found in western Chubu and Kinki Regions, Japan. Individuals have solid brown or blackish dorsa, with reddish-orange bellies mottled with black coloring. Sawada's plates (1963) show individuals from Tsu (Kinki), Nagoya (Chubu), and Toyama (Chubu), with bright colored bellies, where black coloration appears to seep into the bright coloration from the sides, and one with a nearly solid, bright colored belly.   Kanto Race This race is found in the Kanto plains, Kanto Region, Japan. Defining characteristics include a more blunt tail end, black rows with solid or broken red dorsolateral stripes, and a large red stripe down the center of the belly. Sawada's plates (1963) show individuals from Fujisawa, with bright colored bellies, such that the bright color lacks, or possesses minimal black mottling. The black coloration appears as though it seeps inward from the sides of the abdomen, through the bright coloration. At least one photo showed an individual with a solid, bright colored belly. Tohoku Race This race is found in the Tohoku Region, Japan. Sawada's plates (1963) show individuals from Mt. Chokai, Aomori, and Niigata, with similar belly color as the Kanto Race, that is with bright colored bellies, where the black coloration appears as though it seeps inward from the sides of the abdomen, through the bright coloration, as opposed to typical mottling. Other photos of the Tohoku Race appear to have some black spots or dots in the orange coloration, as well.

Cynops pyrrhogaster sasayamae ( = Sasayama / Tamba Race) Cynops pyrrhogaster sasayamae are found in northern Kinki and eastern Chugoku districts. Sasayama are the largest of the races/subspecies, and usually possesses two irregular black lines running down bright colored bellies. The bright ventral coloration usually consists of dense lots of tiny, bright dots on a black background. This characteristic is distinguishable from the typical black and orange/red mottling found on other subspecies, and other Cynops species. However, the belly pattern is highly variable and may consist of large, dark blotches, with or without black lines. Sawada's plates (1963) show individuals with dense, bright colored dots and a dark background, some with irregular, bright colored lines running parallel down the belly. This race/subspecies generally possess a noticeable bright colored area down the middle of the belly, which may or may not also contain black spots. During courtship, the males place one hind leg on the females dorsum while fanning pheromones with the tail, a characteristic unique to this subspecies/race.

C. pyrrhogaster are found on mainland Japan, throughout the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. Adult C. pyrrhogaster are mostly aquatic, but may emerge onto land occasionally for various reasons. In the wild, some may spend long periods of time on land, particularly during the cold season, and return to the water to breed when temperatures begin warming. Adults of other populations may remain mostly aquatic year-round. Wild juveniles are thought to remain terrestrial for the first few years of life. The map at left shows some known localities of the various races, as adapted from Sawada (1963). It can be seen from these populations that the Hiroshima, Intermediate, and Sasayama races are in close proximity at some points, compared to the Tohoku and Kanto races, which are rather isolated from the others. It is worth noting that there may well be other, undocumented populations of Kanto and Tohoku races occurring in closer proximity with the other races. However, as outlined previously, genetic findings have shown that the Tohoku and Kanto races may be sexually isolated from other races, which supports the current "isolated" distribution pattern of Tohoku and Kanto races. 

C. pyrrhogaster enters breeding mode in the spring, after a cooling or dormant period. In captivity, hibernation is not necessary for most individuals, if not all individuals and races, but a moderate cooling period of temperatures somewhere in the range of 50°F - 62°F usually suffices. Some individuals may only require a cooling period in the range of 60°F - 65°F, followed by warmer temperatures. Temperatures lower than 40°F may result in sluggish behavior, or hibernation. There is no harm in allowing the animals to enter hibernation, but as mentioned earlier, it is not necessary to stimulate breeding in captivity. During the cooling period, the newts may spend their time on land, depending on how low the temperatures fall. After the cooling period, temperatures can be quantitatively elevated to 68°F-73°F. Increased lighting durations during the warmer period may also help stimulate breeding in C. pyrrhogaster. In captivity, established colonies in temperate zones typically enter breeding mode consistently with no additional stimuli from their keepers. That is, the normal, yet buffered, temperature changes experienced indoors may suffice for established colonies. 

Adult males are usually smaller than females, and during the breeding season will develop swollen cloaca, smoother skin, and laterally compressed tails, sometimes with a fine thread or filament at the end. Like other Cynops species, the tails of males are generally shorter than those of females. Some races will produce a purplish-blue or whitish sheen along the sides of the tail in a display similar to some Paramesotriton and Pachytriton species.

Courtship occurs in the water with the male butting the female with his head in an attempt to stimulate her. Males attempt to position themselves perpendicular in front of females, where they will fan pheromones with the tail toward the snouts of the females. Males of the Sasayama race may also place one hind foot on the dorsum of the female during tail-fanning. C. pyrrhogaster will actively compete with other males for available females, so uncharacteristic aggressive  and active behavior is common during the breeding season. Several aquatic plants, such as Elodea (Anacharis, or Elodea densa), Crinum, Lilaeopsis, Vesicularia (Java Moss) , or other small-leaved varieties should be present, as plants are the most common place for egg deposition. 

Females will produce approximately 100-200 eggs, usually attaching them to the bottoms of leafs, or folding leaf tips over the eggs, and may continue to deposit eggs at intervals for several weeks. Eggs begin hatching approximately 20-22 days after deposition (depending on temperature), and the larvae will metamorphose approximately 2-4 months after hatching (depending on water chemistry and temperature).

New morphs are dark brown or black in color, some with a yellow or orange stripe down the dorsal ridge, tail, and underside of tail. The belly is initially a whitish-cream color mottled with brown or black, and will develop into bright orangish-red with age. Bright coloration about the dorsum in the form of lines and spots also develops with age, while the yellow dorsal stripe usually diminishes. In the wild, juvenile C. pyrrhogaster are thought to remain terrestrial for the first few years of life, however, in captivity they may be raised in a semi-aquatic environment. It is worth noting that some individuals may not adhere to a semi-aquatic environment, and may insist on a terrestrial habitat.

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Cynops orphicus (Risch, 1983) Dayang Newt

Taxonomic Synonyms: None
Vernacular Names: Dayang Newt 

Cynops orphicus is a medium sized species, thought to be roughly the size of Cynops pyrrhogaster. C. orphicus is characterized by the presence of a flattened head with prominent canthus rostralis, finely granulated skin, dark colored dots along the laterally compressed tail (Zhao, 1988). Cynops orphicus also possess reddish-orange dots on the palms of each foot. As can be seen from the photos below, C. orphicus is also noticeably lighter colored than any other Cynops species.

Cynops orphicus were once found in Dayang (Tai-Yong), Shantou Region, Guangdong province, China, but are very rare in the wild today. In fact, until recently they were thought to be extinct in the wild. There are many rumors about the actual number still in the wild today, and some claim several populations have been discovered from the year 2000 to the present. Much of their habitat has been replaced by agriculture, so a big comeback in wild populations is not foreseeable in the near future, unless unknown populations are discovered or serious conservation actions are taken. On the brighter side, there are a few known colonies and individuals kept in research facilities, including the Chengdu Insitute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the University of California at Berkeley.