Introduction
Poison frogs are found in the tropics of South and Central America, where the humidity level is nearly 80% year round. Frogs of the genera Dendrobates, Epipedobates, Minyobates, and Phyllobates are most often kept and bred in captivity, although many of these species are extremely rare. In the wild, many species are threatened or endangered, and even though these frogs readily breed in captivity, they are still taken out of the wild and sold to hobbyists. Poison frogs will regularly hybridize with species of the same genus in captivity, a practice that is typically looked down upon by breeders because it thins the bloodline of these increasingly rare creatures. 

Batrachotoxin is found in many of the poison frogs of South and Central America. Like the tarichatoxin found in newts, batrachotoxins are powerful, non-protein toxins, however, batrachotoxins are much more potent than tarichatoxin. A .00001 gram dose of batrachotoxin is enough to kill an adult human. Batrachotoxins effect the permeability of selective ions, resulting in depolarization of the nerves and muscles, arrhythmias, ventricular fibrillation, and possible cardiac arrest.

Batrachotoxin has long been used by South American natives for defense. By rubbing arrows and spear tips in the toxin secretions of poison frogs, namely Phyllobates terribilis, the Emberá and Noanamá Chocó Indians of Colombia have devised a powerful weapon, hence the common names "Poison Dart Frog", and "Poison Arrow Frog" commonly used to describe Dendrobatids. Frogs of the genus Phyllobates are the most toxic, with Phyllobates terribilis at the top of the list.

In addition to batrachotoxin, some species can produce other, less powerful agents, such as pumiliotoxins, histrionicotoxins, and gephyrotoxins. Pumiliotoxins occur in all species of the genera Dendrobates, and Phyllobates. Over 100 pumiliotoxins have been isolated from both genera, which are divided into three groups: Pumiliotoxins A, B, and C. Pumiliotoxins A and B are considerably more potent than Pumiliotoxin C.

Poison frogs are thought to obtain their toxicity from consuming poisonous insects for which they possess an immunity to. The poison from the insects is assimilated and used as a defense mechanism by the frogs. This is a widely accepted theory, however, some have suggested that the toxins are attained by the consumption of bacteria possessing the toxins. This is the most widely accepted theory explaining the presence of toxins in well-studied,  temperate-zone caudate species, such as Taricha torosa, so it seems feasible that it would apply, at least in part, to other poisonous amphibians. One thing is known for sure; the original source of the toxins came from their wild habitat. Because of this, it is thought that captive bred poison frogs lack the toxicity of wild-caught specimens, or at least possess a considerably reduced amount, but retain the beautiful coloration characteristic of Dendrobatid frogs. For more information on toxic amphibians, see article 0011 - Toxicity and Defense Mechanisms of Amphibians.

Dart frogs are often brilliantly colored, with contrasting colors that make for a striking appearance. Poison frogs are diurnal, and rather easy to care for and breed, making them a favorite type among amphibian hobbyists. Another perk is that because they are small and undisruptive, they can be housed in lavish jungle-like terrariums with numerous forms of plant life, waterfalls, pools, mosses, ferns, backdrops, etc. However, like all amphibians, dart frogs require regular maintenance, a sanitary environment, a proper habitat, and adequate nutrition.

Some dart frogs of the genera Dendrobates and Epipedobates are divided into groups for which members of each group possess similar characteristics. See Table 1.1 below for a breakdown of the dart frog groups.

Breeding is largely similar to Dendrobates auratus, except the female initiates the session with D. azureus. Courtship consists of the female stroking her chosen mate's body with her front feet. The male responds to the courtship behavior with a low buzzing sound. This sound is virtually inaudible, but the action can be seen as he inflates his body and then deflates as the throat is expanded. 

Following courtship, the male will then lead the female to his chosen breeding site. If the female is satisfied with the site, she will stay and deposit eggs. If she is not satisfied, she will leave and find a new mate. The female will deposit between 3-6 eggs (sometimes more or less), and the male will will typically fertilize them shortly after. The male will care for the eggs until they hatch 10-14 days later. During this time, he will regularly fill his cloaca with water from a nearby source and replenish the eggs' lost moisture. When the eggs are near hatching, the male will carry them to a larger water area where they will be deposited and develop further.

Breeding in captivity can be stimulated by increasing the amount of misting per day to simulate the rainy season, and lowering the temperature by 5°F-8°F (some may require a lower drop in temperature). Small, halved coconut shells can be placed over petri dishes with drain holes. These will serve as 'breeding huts'. It is recommended to place a leaf partially in the petri dish for the female to lay her eggs on. Once the eggs are laid, the petri dish should be removed, and a new one set in its place.

The petri dish should be placed in a small tank with just enough lukewarm water to touch the outer edge of the egg mass. The eggs should be gently sprayed once or twice daily with de-chlorinated water to mimic the care the male would be providing in the wild. When the eggs hatch, the tadpoles should be released into separate containers filled with 3-4 inches of tepid (around 72°F), conditioned water (this species is cannibalistic, so separation of the eggs and tadpoles is necessary). These containers can be large beakers, Tupperware containers, small fish tanks, or any other suitable device. A 10% water change should be performed on each rearing container once per week to prevent high levels of ammonia and nitrite. This is a crucial time in the frogs' development, and it is important to provide proper amounts of UV light and nutrition. The tadpoles should be exposed to UV light in the form of a fluorescent bulb for about 15 minutes once per week. Feeding should occur 2-3 times per week, and can consist of newly hatched brine shrimp, finely chopped blood worms and tubifex worms, daphnia, chopped mussel, copepods, paramecium, and scuds. It is important to provide a variety of foods to ensure proper nourishment. Experiments have shown that tadpoles raised without the exposure to UV light, and fed only crushed fish flakes developed spindly leg syndrome (rickets), weak or deformed morphs, and back and limb development (Blake, and Sherriff, The BDG). 

When all four limbs are apparent, the froglets can be moved to small containers with a smaller amount of water. These containers should be tipped slightly to provide a 'sloping beach' effect so that the froglets can remain on land or in the water when they choose. Also, a small cup or similar device should be added to serve as a hiding place. Feeding can be omitted at this time, as the froglets will be provided with nutrition by absorption of the tail (they most likely will not accept food items at this time anyway). When the tail is completely absorbed, the young can be placed in a terrarium type setup as described below, and feeding can consist of small terrestrials, and the lighting regimen described below in the Housing section implemented.

As an alternative, the larvae can be reared in a large tank or tub with plenty of vegetation for hiding, but this method usually results in fatalities due to cannibalism. This type of setup requires some sort of land area, such as large protruding rocks, for the frogs to emerge onto during metamorphosis.

D. auratus in Captivity

Substrate
The idea should be to mimic the frogs natural habitat of the rainforest floor. Four to six inches of moist soil substrate is ideal for adult D. azureus. The substrate of the rainforest floor is very nutrient-rich, and so a good mixture rich in organic matter and beneficial bacteria should be created (see article 0021 - Substrates for the Vivarium for more information). Tropical plant life also requires a very rich mixture, and cannot survive in improper environments. Dart frogs are exposed to a diverse array of objects and materials in the wild, including moist soil, rocks, tree roots, leaf litter, tiny ferns, rolling mosses, and more. Because of this, their home should have a diverse terrain as well. Soil substrate can be molded into small, rolling hills, with pillow moss or sheet moss can be scattered about, and moist driftwood can be positioned to mount epiphytes, lichens, and moss on. Dart frog tanks can be made very elaborate with terrestrial plants, decorations, driftwood, epiphytes, hiding places, mosses, backdrops, waterfalls, pools, etc. (see article 0020 - Captive Habitats: Ideas, Instructions, and Examples for more information, and article 0021 - Substrates for the Vivarium for more information on substrate mixtures).

Water Chemistry
Small waterfalls or water bodies make a more natural environment, and add to the aesthetic properties of the tank. Any bodies of water included should be treated with a water conditioner prior to exposure to amphibians. Regular tap water contains toxic chemicals, such as chlorine and chloramines, which are a certain death sentence to any amphibian. Water conditioners can be purchased in the freshwater fish department of any pet store (Prime or Amquell work well). Spring water or clean pond water are acceptable alternatives to water conditioners (see article 0006 - Water Chemistry and Amphibians, and Article 0009 - Introduction to the Nitrogen Cycle for more information about proper water chemistry). 

For tadpoles, the water level can be 3-4 inches deep, and should be kept tepid (72°F - 75°F). It is not recommended to use filtration with larvae, as they are too strong for the tiny hatchlings. Instead, a 10%-20% every few days is recommended to ensure the larvae's health. Also, bare bottom tanks are recommended for rearing larvae, as they are easier to clean and make feedings easier for the tadpoles.

Plants & Decorations
Live terrestrial plants are recommended for adult dart tanks. Live plants are more natural, and provide oxygen, breeding areas, and hiding places for the inhabitants. Tropical ferns, epiphytes, bromeliads, peperomias, orchids, and other types can also be included. Black Jungle is an excellent place to purchase chemical-free tropical plants, and other supplies, ideal for Dendrobatid species. Hiding places, such as rock caves, terra-cotta pots, halved coconut shells, or driftwood pieces should also be included. 

Live aquatic plants are recommended in breeding waters and larvae tanks because they absorb much of the toxic waste and pollution (ammonia and nitrites) caused from uneaten food and feces, and release it back into the water as oxygen, which keeps the water cleaner and the inhabitants healthier. A densely planted aquarium will reduce the number of fatalities in larvae due to cannibalism (if larvae are housed together). Elodea (Anacharis, or Elodea densa), java moss (Vesicularia dubyana), or other small-leaved varieties are suitable. Mossy driftwood can also be included in both aquatic and terrestrial tanks.

Lighting, Temperature, and Humidity
Experiments have shown that exposure to UV light is important in the production of healthy eggs (Blake, and Sherriff, The BDG). This can be accomplished by providing a full spectrum UV light above the tank. Fluorescent bulbs are recommended over incandescent bulbs because incandescent bulbs have the tendency to burn holes in plant leaves. Temperatures during the day should be between 72°F and 80°F, and no lower than 65°F at night. Typically, a ceramic heating device that does not produce light is used in conjunction with a fluorescent tube for lighting and heating (see Article 0020 - Captive Habitats: Ideas, Instructions and Examples for more housing information).

The substrate must be sprayed with conditioned water every day, sometimes several times per day depending on location and atmospheric chemistry, to ensure proper amounts of moisture (see Article 0020 - Captive Habitats: Ideas, Instructions for examples). Although slightly more expensive, misting systems are more efficient, provide a consistent environment for your frogs, and are beneficial in simulating varying seasons for breeding purposes.

Feeding D. azureus

Duellman, William, and Linda Trueb. Biology of Amphibians. Johns Hopkins University Pr., 1994.

Hofrichter, Robert. Amphibians: The World of Frogs, Toads, Salamanders and Newts. Firefly Books, 2000.

Mattison, Chris. Frogs & Toads of The World. Sterling Publications, 1998.

McDiarmid, Roy W., and Ronald Altig. Tadpoles: The Biology of Anuran Larvae. University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Walls, Jerry G. Poison Dart Frogs of the Family Dendrobatidae: Jewels of the Rainforest. Neptune City, NY: T.F.H. Publications, 1994.

Wright, Kevin M.,  and Brent R. Whitaker. Amphibian Medicine and Captive Husbandry. Malabar: Krieger Publishing, 2001.